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SBL Annual Meeting Papers November 2005 WORKING DRAFT: Please do not cite without permission of the author JOURNEY TO MOUNT HOREB: copyright(c) 2006 J. Dwayne Howell and Susan H. Howell Elijah's journey to Mount Horeb in 1 Kings 19:1-18 portrays the struggle of an individual who displays hopelessness. In 1 Kings 18:14-16 he had defeated the prophets of Baal and Asherah at Mount Carmel. However, instead of bringing about national repentance, Elijah is threatened by the Queen of Israel, Jezebel. Fleeing for his life, Elijah journeys 40 days to Mount Horeb where he is confronted by the reality of his situation and is directed by God to return to Israel. Using cognitive theory as a base, the paper explores Elijah's experiences and God's response as described by the writer of the text. Beck's cognitive triad,1 which consists of a negative view of one's self and one's future and a negative interpretation of one's experiences, provides the framework for understanding Elijah's sense of hopelessness. God's directive response to Elijah is also consistent with the therapeutic approach advocated by cognitive theory.2 The use of psychology in biblical studies is an emerging post-modern approach to interpreting scripture.3 Wayne G. Rollins sets the following premise for Psychological Biblical Studies: From a biblical-critical perspective, the Bible is to be seen as part and product, not only of a historical, literary, and socio-anthropological process, but also a psychological process. In this process, conscious and unconscious factors are at work in the biblical authors and their communities, in the texts they have produced, in readers and interpreters of these texts and in their communities, and in the individual, communal, and cultural effects of those interpretations.4 The use of psychology with biblical studies employs a variety of theories in its research, including cognitive theory. Cognitive theory proposes that behavior and emotional reactions originate within our cognitions (e.g.., thoughts, beliefs, assumptions).5 Thoughts such as "I'll never amount to anything" or "No one cares about me" prompt the emotional reaction of depression and its accompanying behavioral symptoms (e.g., sleep and appetite disturbance, detachment from people and activities that previously brought pleasure). Consequently, a change in cognition will result in a change of emotion. The task of cognitive therapy, therefore, is to identify maladaptive thought patterns and work toward changing them to more adaptive thought patterns which result in the alleviation of the symptoms.6 "No one cares about me" can become "I am disappointed that the one I care for doesn't return my affection, but I am still a person of worth and there are others in my life who care about me very much." These elements are found in Elijah's flight to Mount Horeb in 1 Kings 19. Elijah is one of the key prophets during the divided monarchy period. Elijah, along with Elisha comprise the two major non-writing prophets of the Old Testament. His ministry deals with the Omri Dynasty of the Northern Kingdom, primarily with the reign of Ahab, the son of Omri. The status of Elijah gains such importance that his return is expected before the coming Day of the Lord (Malachi 4:5; cf. Mt. 17:10-12; Mk. 9:4-13). The character of Elijah plays a prominent role in the New Testament as well. Both Jesus and John the Baptist were believed to be Elijah returned (Mt. 16:14; Mk. 6:15; Lk. 9:8, 19) and John the Baptist's power is equated with Elijah's power (Lk. 1-17; John denies being Elijah or the Christ in Jn. 1:19-28). Jesus makes reference to Elijah's rejection in Israel and his ministry to those outside of Israel in comparison to his own ministry when confronting the pharisees (Lk. 4:24-26). Also both Elijah and Moses appear in the Transfiguration with Jesus (Mt. 17:1-18; Mk. 9:2-8; Lk. 9:28-36) James refers to the effectiveness of Elijah's prayers (5:16-18). Finally, Paul makes reference to 1 Kings 19 when he compares the faithful remnant of his day to the 7000 faithful who remained in Israel in Elijah's day (cf. 1 Kings 19:18). Elijah's ministry begins during the reign of Ahab at which time the prophets of the LORD are being replaced with the prophets of Baal. This was done under the leadership of Jezebel, Ahab's wife and a native of Canaan. It is within this context of combating the prophets of Baal that the Elijah narratives appear (1 Kings 17-19; 21; 2 Kings 1-2). Three key stories in 1 Kings 17-19 serve as an introduction to Elijah's ministry.7 Elijah is first introduced in 1 Kings 17:1. Little background is given to the prophet, simply that he is from Tishbe in Gilead. The sudden appearance of Elijah in this first narrative is a theme that runs throughout the Elijah narratives (1 Kgs. 17:10; 18:7; 21:17). Confronting Ahab, Elijah states that the LORD will withhold both rain and dew from the land because of its adoption of Baal worship. This is a direct challenge to the efficacy of Baal who is seen as the God of the Storm. Elijah leaves as quickly as he appears in the story and goes to the Brook at Cherith where God provides both food and water. The role of God as provider during desperate times will appear again in 1 King 19 when God provides for Elijah bread and water in the wilderness (vv. 5b-9a). God sends Elijah from Cherith to Zarephath where he is aided by a widow (1 Kgs. 17) 1 Kings 17 shows the independent nature of Elijah. He travels alone relying on the hospitality of God and others.8 Also, Elijah appears to share the divine oracle and then leaves, a common pattern in the Elijah narratives. Obadiah makes reference to the movement of Elijah by the Spirit of the LORD in 1 Kings 18:11-12. As described here, Elijah's personality seems to fit the profile of an introvert as described by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI),9 one who is more energized from within rather than from others. While the MBTI asserts that introversion is no more or less healthy than extraversion,10 introversion has been correlated with an increased tendency toward depression.11 This correlation might emerge from the introvert's tendency to pull inward, which might become problematic in situations conducive to depression. Without the perceived need for as much outside stimulation, the introvert might unknowingly cut himself or herself off from other people and experiences which could provide a challenge to maladaptive thinking. If such is the case, Elijah's pattern of sharing and leaving might have set the stage for a depressive episode once a situation emerged conducive to a depressive reaction. 1 Kings 18 provides the second story that introduces the reader the character of Elijah. This story provides a direct catalyst to the crisis Elijah faces in 1 Kings 19. After being told of Obadiah, a servant in Ahab's court, protecting 100 prophets of the LORD (vv. 7-15), Elijah challenges the prophets of Baal to offer a sacrifice to their god and he will offer a sacrifice to his god. Whichever sacrifice that is found acceptable will determine the true god. The writer recounts the number of the prophets of Baal (450) and Asherah (400) while only Elijah is named as the prophet of the LORD. After the failure of the prophets of Baal and Asherah in their sacrifice, Elijah prepares the altar for his sacrifice. Significant in this preparation is his prayer. He chastises the people for trying to follow both Baal and the LORD. In verse 22 he states "I, even I only, am left a prophet of the LORD;..." This theme will be carried over into 1 Kings 19 as he flees to Mount Horeb. Elijah's statement is an example of what cognitive theorists refer to as "all-or-nothing thinking,"12 which assumes two extreme alternatives in a situation, rather than the more realistic assessment that alternatives are often found between the extremes. Elijah claims that all have abandoned the Lord, rather than the more likely alternative that while some have, others have not. Already the reader has been told that Obadiah has protected at least 100 prophets of the LORD (v. 13). However, Elijah shows no recollection of the other prophets. With fewer alternatives, hope diminishes, which is not only a symptom of depression, but perpetuates the destructive thought pattern characteristic of the depressed individual. While evidence of Elijah being depressed at this point is absent, it appears that he is engaging in maladaptive thought patterns which further set the stage for a depressive episode when the right trigger emerges. The result of the challenge in 1 Kings 18 is a victory for the LORD and Elijah. After the sacrifice, Elijah proceeds to kill the prophets of Baal and Asherah. Also, with Baal's defeat, rain returns to the land. However, the victory does not lead to a national repentance. Instead, in 1 Kings 19, upon hearing the report from Ahab of Elijah's success, Jezebel sends a death warrant through her messenger to Elijah (vv. 1-2). Elijah responds with fear and flight (vv. 3-5a) fleeing south out of Israel and through Judah to the edge of the wilderness. It is at this point that he leaves his servant behind and begins his journey in the wilderness.13 The solitude of Elijah is emphasized with the solitary broom tree (rôtem 'echâd) under which he finds rest (v. 4). It is at this point that he expresses his desire to die: "It is enough, O LORD, take my life; for I am no better than my fathers;" and then he falls asleep (vv. 4b-5a). Elijah is awakened by a messenger of the LORD and fed bread and water (vv. 5b-6a). Once again the theme of the reliance of Elijah on the hospitality of God re-emerges. As before, God cares for Elijah through an intermediary. Malak in vv. 6 and 7 is translated as "messenger" instead of "angel" because it is a direct play on the "messenger" of Jezebel in v. 2. While the messenger of Jezebel brought a threat to Jezebel. the "messenger" of God brings comfort. After Elijah eats, he once again goes to sleep (v. 6b) The second time that the messenger awakens Elijah to eat, he tells him of the journey he is about to take (vv. 7-9a). Elijah travels 40 days to Mount Horeb, the mountain of God.14 Jezebel's threat provides the trigger and Elijah responds with several symptoms of depression. Elijah flees from others, even leaving his servant behind, as he seeks solitude. In addition to being symptomatic of depression, isolation can perpetuate depression as the individual ruminates over his own faulty interpretation of events and separates himself from those who could provide a challenge to such maladaptive thought patterns. The fact that Elijah falls asleep and is awakened twice by a messenger of God to be fed reflects a possible disruption of sleeping and eating patterns, both characteristic of depression. His desire to die also reflects the suicidal ideation sometimes experienced by depressed individuals. The cognitive triad15 appears to be present as well. Elijah expresses his negative interpretation of experience in his statement that he is the only faithful one who has not turned from God. His desire to die reflects his lack of hope in his future. Elijah also might have been disappointed with himself, particularly since Jezebel's threat came following a recent success or high point in his life. Inflexible expectations and over reacting when falling short of those expectations is referred to as "Should" or "Must" statements in cognitive theory16 and appear to be a factor in Elijah's negative view of himself. This could also illustrate "selective abstraction," the inordinate focus on negative aspects of a situation17 as Elijah is no longer focusing on his success, but on his potential defeat. 1 Kings 19:9b-18 is a dialogue between God and Elijah. God opens the discussion with the query "What are you doing here?"(v. 9) Elijah's response is reminiscent of his initial argument found in 1 Kings 18:22, "I have been faithful for the LORD, God of Hosts; the people of Israel have forsaken your covenant; I, even I only, am left." In this query it appears that God is prompting Elijah to voice his thoughts which Elijah does by stating his interpretation of the situation. From a cognitive perspective, specifically identifying one's interpretation of a situation is an important step in evaluating its accuracy18 and questioning is a method used by cognitive therapists toward this end.19 In verses 11 and 12 God responds to Elijah through four theophanies. The first three are associated with the giving of the law on the mountain: Storm (v. 11b); Earthquake (v. 11c); and Fire (v. 12a). Elijah does not find God in any of these first three theophanies. Two suggestions can be given for why Elijah did not experience God at this time. First, these theophanies were commonly associated with Mount Horeb and to say that God can only communicate in this manner limits divine communication. However, Richard Nelson suggests another reason why Elijah did not respond to these first three theophanies, depression. "Seen in this way, the impressive wind, earthquake and fire are simply failed attempts to get Elijah out of the cave (v. 11a) and out of his depression."20 In this sense it is possible that his failure to recognize or to acknowledge God's presence in the first three theophanies, might reflect difficulty in decision-making or a decrease in motivation characteristic of the depressed. The fourth theophany is a voice that again asks the question "What are you doing here?" (vv. 12b-13). Often the voice of the theophany is interpreted as a silent whisper, contrasting the forceful nature of the first three theophanies. However, J. Lust believes that the phrase qôl demamâ daqâ should be translated as "a crushing and roaring sound" based on its etymology and a parallel use of qôl and daqâ in Psalm 93:3:
Lust believes that the roaring voice would be a natural theophany to follow the first three theophanies.21 Which ever interpretation is held, still the voice was effective in bringing Elijah out of the cave. Upon hearing the voice, Elijah wraps his face and exits the cave. His response to the question was the same as before, stating his belief that he is the only one who has remained faithful to God (v. 10). God responds with an imperative "Go" (lêk - v. 15) decommissioning Elijah to return to Israel (vv. 15-17). In the process Elijah is to anoint the new king of Aram (modern day Syria), the new king of Israel (Jehu) and his successor (Elisha). The three that Elijah anoints are portrayed as carrying out God's purpose while it is Elijah's role is to set them apart. God also provides a proper perspective for Elijah concerning the faithful in Israel: he is not the only faithful one left in Israel. The reader has already been told that Obadiah had saved 100 prophets of the LORD from death (18:13). God states that 7000 others have not followed after Baal (v. 18). God's response to Elijah is also reflective of the cognitive-behavioral perspective. Cognitive therapy utilizes homework assignments to provide the depressed individual an opportunity to test the validity of their beliefs, practice new behaviors, develop new thought patterns, and promote feelings of self-efficacy.22 God provides this opportunity to Elijah in the command to "Go" (v 15) and in the instruction to "get up and eat" earlier in the story (vv. 5b and 7b). In providing Elijah with tasks to complete, first with simple everyday tasks of sustenance and then with returning to Israel to anoint new kings and a successor, God refutes Elijah's negative view of self and prompts Elijah's more realistic assessment of his own abilities and usefulness. This cognitive restructuring continues as God states that Elijah is not the only faithful one left in Israel. In refuting Elijah's distortion of reality, God provides a realistic assessment of the situation which frees Elijah to consider other possible outcomes for his own future. As an addendum to the paper, the importance of the use of cross discipline approaches to hermeneutics should be noted. Classical Historical-Literary criticism does provide parameters for the study of the text. However, by including such disciplines as psychology, the reader is allowed to move beyond simply what the text meant in a given historical context and is encouraged to discover the multivalent meaning it possesses for interpretation. Psychological Biblical Studies offers the opportunity to look at the text from varying perspectives.23 The present paper has employed just one method of study, a character study using cognitive theory. Wayne G. Rollins notes a two-fold benefit of doing psychological studies of biblical characters.24 First, it adds a new aspect to new literary and narrative criticism by "drawing attention to the psychodynamic factors." Aspects in the characterization of Elijah in 1 Kings 17-18 suggests the situation that Elijah experiences in 1 Kings 19: introversion that leads to isolation25; cognitive distortion; and depression. God's response to the situation provide directive response in cognitive restructuring which liberates Elijah to continue in his work. Secondly, it aids in understanding why the believing community is drawn to certain characters in the biblical text. The characterization of Elijah in 1 Kings 19 parallels the experiences in ministry today for both clergy and laity. When expectations do not become reality, one can believe that only he or she remains faithful to God. As with Elijah, withdrawal from the situation might be an opportunity for cognitive restructuring which free one to continue his or her work. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Beck, Aaron T. A. John Rush, Brian F. Shaw, & Gary Emery, Cognitive Therapy of Depression (New York: The Guilford Press, 1979). Beck, Judith S., Cognitive Therapy: Basics and Beyond (New York: The Guilford Press, 1995) Kille, D. Andrew. Psychological Biblical Studies (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2001). Nelson, Richard. First and Second Kings (Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1987) Rollins, Wayne G. Soul and Psyche: The Bible in Psychological Perspective (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1999). NOTES 1 Aaron T. Beck, A. John Rush, Brian F. Shaw, & Gary Emery, Cognitive Therapy of Depression (New York: The Guilford Press, 1979), 11. 2 Ibid., 3. 3 Cf. D. Andrew Kille, Psychological Biblical Studies (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2001) for a concise study of this approach. 4 Wayne G. Rollins, Soul and Psyche: The Bible in Psychological Perspective (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1999), 92. 5 Judith S. Beck, Cognitive Therapy: Basics and Beyond (New York: The Guilford Press, 1995), 1. 6 Aaron T. Beck, et al., 4. 7 Cf. Robert L. Cohn, "The Literary Logic of 1 Kings 17-19", Journal of Biblical Literature, September, 1982, 333-350. Cohn views a literary progression developed in 1 Kings 17-19 which introduces the reader to the character of Elijah. 8 Despite Carmelite ideology, Elijah is seen as an independent prophet. Cf. Jane Ackermann, "Stories of Elijah and Medieval Carmelite Identity," History of Religions, vol. 35 November 1995, 124-147. Anderson discusses the ideology that the Carmelites developed in associating themselves in a direct succession from Elijah. 9 I. B. Myers, Introduction to Type (Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc., 1987). 10 Ibid. 11 O.W. Lacy, "Nonthreatening, objective psychometric identification of students at risk for depression and/or suicidal behavior," Journal of College Student Psychotherapy, vol 4(3-4), 1990. However, a correlation between extraversion and bipolar disorder has been reported by David S. Janowsky, Shirley Morter, Liyi Hong, and Laura Howe, "Myers Briggs Type Indicator and Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire differences between bipolar patients and unipolar depressed patients," Bipolar Disorders, vol. 1 (2), (December, 1999). 12 Judith S. Beck, 119. 13 The wilderness plays in integral in spiritual pilgrimages throughout the Bible (Israel's wilderness wanderings [Numbers 14 ff], Jesus in the wilderness [Mt. 4:1-11; Mk. 1:12,13; Lk. 4:1-13]). 14 Mount Horeb is synonomous with Mount Sinai and displays two traditions concerning the name of a single place. Also, the forty days in the wilderness is also seen as a time of spiritual pilgrimage (Flood account Gn. 6, spies in land Num. 13, Jesus' beginning of ministry - also possible parallel with the 40 years wondering in the wilderness). 15 Aaron T. Beck et al., 11. 16 Judith S. Beck, 119. 17 Ibid., 119. 18 Ibid., 8. 19 Ibid., 8. 20 Richard Nelson, First and Second Kings (Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1987), 125. While other authors mention that Elijah shows symptoms of depression, Nelson gives a thorough discussion of Elijah's symptoms (126 and 127). 21 J. Lust, "A Gentle Breeze or a Roaring Thunderous Sound - Elijah at Horeb: 1 Kings xix12" Vetus Testamentum, 25 (January ,1975), 110-115. 22 Judith S. Beck, 248. 23 Rollins, 6. Rollins notes that in the 1990's the American Psychological Association noted 58 different fields in Psychology, many of these fields with the ability to inform biblical hermeneutics. 24 Ibid., 127. 25 It should emphasized that introversion, as well as extraversion, is not necessarily reflective of mental health or illness. Rather, each personality trait embodies potential strengths and potential risks. See D. M. Keirsey, Personality: Character and Temperament. Retrieved from http://www.keirsey.com and I. B. Myers, Introduction to Type (Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc., 1987).
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